India: Grassland ecology and gene poll - a background note

By Harsh Vardhan

INTRODUCTION

India covers an area of about 32,87,263 sq. km, supports diverse flora and fauna. The annual rainfall varies from a low of 50 mm in Jaisalmer (Rajasthan) to 11,000 mm in the Cheeranpunjee region (Meghalaya). The population in 1947 was 340 million which, by 2001, crossed the one billion mark.

BIODIVERISITY OF INDIA

It is a mega-diversity country, among the top ten nations endowed with the world's richest biodiversity. It represents about 7% of the world's flora and 6.5% of the world's fauna, recording 614 species of amphibians and reptiles, 1,225 species of birds, and 350 species of mammals. Of these, 173 species of mammals, 78 species of birds and 15 species of reptiles are considered threatened.

However, little information is available on all the biological components of these organisms. It is presumed that there still remain several species that have not even been named by science. Their value to India's human population as sources of useful genes, as food or medicines, or as essential parts of eco system, has hardly been studied.

GRASSLANDS IN INDIA

The Grasslands are highly productive eco system. They support economy of an indescribable populace of people, largely rural, in a country like India and contribute towards nature conservation in numerous ways. Almost each part of the country has given definite nomenclature to Grasslands which indicates peoples' close association with such land types : Bheel, Veedi, Rakhaal,
Charagah, Banni etc. The local name for Great Indian Bustard (Ardeotis nigriceps) in Maharashtra is Maldhok - the bird that lives in open (grassland) country! Such green or arid pastures have found mention in country's folk lore as well.

Despite such intimate connectivity of Grasslands with local stake holders, it looks like an irony that these habitats of utmost potential have remained untouched when ever there are proposals initiated for 'development' at Government levels probably all over the country. It is bit difficult to come across publications exclusively devoted to such productive regimes. Even mention about grasses in forestry literature is sketchy. Here is a brief.

(i) The temperate grassy slopes and secondary scrub are found in the Himalayan region's lower elevations (which are breeding grounds for a large number of birds and mammals); the Dachigam National Park represents such grassland habitat supporting a highly endangered sub-species of Red Deer called Hangul (Cervus elaphus hanglu) and several grassland birds. Vast stretches of scrub is observed in the montane region of Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh.
(ii) The Shivaliks or the Sub-Himalayan zone falls under the Indo-Gangetic Plains (Rodgers and Panwar 1988) between the Ganges and Yamuna rivers in Uttaranchal. However, its vast stretches of grasslands in this nearly 40,000 sq. km area (of which about 21,000 sq. km falls under the Protected Area network) remain dormant though they support mega
species like the Asiatic Elephant (Elephas maximus) and Tiger (Panthera tigris).
(iii) The Indian Desert is estimated to support about 500 species of vascular plants covering vast stretches of highly nutritious grass species, which have received hardly any priority.
(iv) The Semi-Arid Zone represents a characteristic savannah woodland. The habitat is dominated by grasses and associated forbs, including legumes of African affinity.
(v) The Western Ghats occupy about 5% of India's land area (about 1,32,606 sq. km), harbouring about 27% of its total flora. Areas above 1,800 m are dominated by natural grasslands and adjacent pockets of montane evergreen forests frequently termed as Shola-Grassland Complex. The common herbaceous elements among the grasses include Anaphalis spp., Campanula fulgeus, Cassia spp., etc, and apparently well recorded.
(vi) The Deccan Peninsula is the largest biogeographic zone of India (Rodgers and Panwar 1988). Its thorn scrub vegetation has been described by Puri et al (1989). Pushp Kumar wrote the habitat of great Indian Bustard (Ardeotis nigriceps) covers, "Acacia sundra, Acacia leucophoa, Albizzia amara, Acacia latronum, Dichrostachys cinerea, Capparis spp., Carissa spp., Euphorbia spp., Dodonea viscose, Anona squamosa etc." (Bustards In decline by Paul Goriup & Harsh Vardhan 1983).
(vii) The Gangetic Plains are spread over about 3,54,782 sq. km, covering the Terai-Bhabar tracts of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal. The area is dominated by hygrophilous grasslands and savannah woodlands. The prominent species of grasses in the region include Saccharum spontaneum, S. arundinaceum, Imperata cylindrical, Cymbo[pgen flexuosus, and Vetiveia zizanioides. Some of the communities within these grasslands e.g. Imperata cyclindrica-Cymbopogen flexusus, are also reported to be the habitat for the threatened Bengal Florican (Houbaropsis bengalensis). Most of these grasslands ultimately give rise to climax Sal (Shorea robusta) forest.
(viii) The Coastline represents two types of vegetation -- mangrove forest and dry sand dunes. Though the coastal sand dune vegetation is typically xerophytic, the grass species is missing.
(ix) The Northeast India and Islands represent a complex mosaic of vegetation types. However, their grasslands are not adequately enumerated.

Rajasthan

Area

With a total geographical area of 3,42,239 sq. km, Rajasthan is an arid and semi-arid zone in the country with the Thar Desert forming its western region bordering with Pakistan, and southern portion of this desert extending into (Northern) Gujarat.

Population

Its population in 1991 was 4.40 crores which increased to 5.5665 crores in 01. Of this (in 01) the urban was 1.32 crore, and rural was 4.32 crore. The density is 165 persons per sq. km, which in 1991 were 129.

Forest

Its forest area is about 32,270 sq. km (maximum in Udaipur, Chittorgarh and Kota). Of this the Reserved forest area is 12,385 sq. km (maximum in Udaipur, Chittorgarh and Sawai Madhopur). The Protected Area network covers 16,991.85 sq. km (maximum in Baran, Sawai Madhopur, Karauli included, and Udaipur). Unclassified forest area is 2,892.62 sq. km (maximum in Sri Ganganagar, Jaisalmer, Bikaner and Barmer).

Land Use

The net sown area is 1,67,650 sq. km (48.93% of total geographical area). Gross irrigated area is 67,440 sq. km (32.43%).

Rainfall

The annual rainfall was 57.51 cm (average normal) in 1997, and 26.71 cm (average) in 02. It was (average) 8.75 cm in Barmer, 6.63 cm in Bikaner, 8.90 cm in Sri Ganganagar, 4.40 cm in Jaisalmer, and 8.77 cm in Jodhpur in 02.

Livestock

The livestock population in 1997 was 5,43,49,000, which increased to 5,46,74,000 in 01 (Basic Statistics 1999 & 03, GoR). The details are (% -- is decrease over 1997 data):

1. Cattle : 1,15,95,865 (4.85%)
2. Buffaloes : 77,46,617 (25.94%)
3. Sheep : 1,21,68,174 (17.62%)
4. Goats : 1,56,62,589 (12.44%)
5. Horses/Ponies : 24, 630 (-5.34%)
6. Donkies : 1,92,715 (-3.10%)
7. Mules : 3,847 (-!8.61%)
8. Camels : 7,30,742 (-8.55%)

Tractors: The number of tractors increased from 1,44,037 in 1992 to 2,18,774 in 1997 (51.89%).

GRASSLANDS IN RAJASTHAN

Presence of large number of livestock and steep increase in their number, indicates Rajasthan to be a home to Grasslands. They are present all over whether it the arid (Thar Desert) region, which envelopes almost two third of the State, or the semi-arid region. They support the rural economy of about 4.32 crore rural people and play catalytic role towards soil conservation, settlement of sand dunes and even conserving moisture.

The Department of Forest has taken up on priority some Protected Areas to ensure that Grasslands receive due protection such as in :

(i) Desert National Park (Jaisalmer and Barmer districts)
(ii) Talchhapar Sanctuary (Churu district)
(iii) Keoladeo National Park (Bharatpur district)
(iv) Ranthambhor Tiger Reserve (Sawai Madhopur district)
(v) Sariska Tiger Reserve (Alwar district)
(vi) Several Sanctuaries and Closed Areas.

All the PAs cover about 4.96% (16,991.85 sq. km) of the State's total area ad represent quality Grassland habitats. There are 4 National Parks, and 24 Sanctuaries.

Rajasthan claims to have recorded about 510 species of birds (grimmett and Inskipp 2003).

THE INDIAN DESERT

Being in arid and semi-arid zone, Rajasthan has less forest area and can take pride in its vast stretches of grasslands (generally in the semi-arid region). The Indian Thar Desert is spread over about 2,08,751 sq. km in this state alone, while the desert area in neighbouring Gujarat is about 62,180 sq. km, or 20% of the Thar Desert. Depending upon the rainfall, the desert can be divided into four divisions:

(i) The Luni comprising Pali, Jalore, the south-eastern part of Barmer, eastern part of Jodhpur, western part of Ajmer, Sirohi, and southern part of Nagaur.
(ii) The northern drainage zone, comprising Sikar, Jhunjhunu, and northern Nagaur.
(iii) Agriculturally rich district of Sri Ganganagar adjoining Punjab and Haryana.
(iv) The true desert (Marusthal) consisting of entire Jaisalmer, northern Barmer, western parts of Jodhpur, Bikaner and Churu districts.

The Thar is one of the smallest deserts in the world but it exhibits a wide variety of habitats and biodiversity. It is the most thickly populated deserts in the world with an average density of 83 persons per sq. km whereas, in other deserts, the average is 5 only (Baquri and Kankane 2001).

The semi-arid zone (Rodgers et al 2000) constitutes
about 5,48,850 sq. km or 16.60% of India's total geographical area, covering regions outside Rajasthan as well, and they are very potential grassland areas.

THE DESERT GRASSLANDS

The Thar Desert

Grasslands are synonymous with the entire desert eco system. They support the livestock and the people who inhabit the region. The main grass type is Dichanthium-Lasiurur-Cenchrus (Dabadghao & Shankarnarayan 1973). Bhandari (1990) wrote : "in general the vegetation in the arid region is sparse. Plants with only xerophytic adaptations are able to establish themselves. The bulk of the
vegetation consists of stunted, thorny, or prickly shrubs and perennial herbs capable of drought resistance."

Nearly 85% of the Thar is covered with sand dunes and interdunal valleys. There are several saline depressions (Tal Chhapar, Didwana, Pachpadra, Lunkaransar, and Kuchaman) with characteristic vegetation. The major grasses and sedges are : Eleusine compressa, Eragrostis ciliaris, and Dactyloctenium aegyptium.

J.P. Kapoor and H.M. Bhatia wrote : "The desert is subject to strong desiccating winds of velocity going as high as 100 km per hour and an average annual rainfall of 100 mm, most of which is received in one or two showers during monsoon. The vegetation is scanty. It is dotted by A .senegal and Comiphora weightii (on rocky areas) with Prosopis cineraria, Capparis deciduas, Salvidora oleoides, and C. Polygonides (on sand dunes and inter dunal spaces). The sandy areas support Lassiurus sindicus, Aerva tomentosa, Tephrosia purpurea, and Associcts. Collotropis procera scattered over the region giving it a green look.

"The ground cover consists of thick growth of L. Hirsutus, Tephrosia purpuria, Crotolaria burhia, Leptidenia pyrotechnica, Aerva persica, Panicum turgidum, Indigofera condifolia, Eleusine compressa, Cenchrus biflorus, Holoxylon solicornicun, Tribullus teristris etc." (Bustards In Decline by Paul Goriup & Harsh Vardhan 1983).


ARID & SEMI-ARID ZONE

There are vast stretches of grasslands in the arid and semi-arid zones of Rajasthan which have since ages provided abundant opportunities to people to graze their livestock to sustain their economy. The grasslands are dotted with xerophytic bushes dominated by Capparis, Salvadora, Suaeda and Salsola, Zizyphys spp.

V.S. Saxena wrote that the Shonklaia Closed Area, designated by Rajasthan's Department of Forest for the Great Indian Bustard (Ardeotis nigriceps) in 1980, covers, shrubbaceos vegetation: "Zizyphus numularia, Capparis deciduas, Alanites aegypiaca, Dichrostachys cinerea, Indigofera tinctoria, Euphorbia caducifolia, occasional Grewia tenax, Datura metal, Calotropis procera, Leptademia pyratechnica, Crotolaria burhia, Aerva spp, Xanthium strumarium, Barleria spp, Cocculus spp.
The herbaceous flora here is rich but not plentiful : Lepidagathis trivervis, Evolvulus alsinioides, Polygala spp., Indigofera spp., Euphorbia spp., Chinops echinatus, Aloe barbadensis, Leueas hirta, Boerhavia spp., Tridax spp., etc. Towards moist areas is found Vetiveria zizanioides, Saccharum, Spontaneum, Echinochloa colonum, Typha aungustata." (Bustards In decline by Paul Goriup & harsh Vardhan 1983).


WILD SPECIES IN GRASSLANDS

Rajasthan's arid and semi-arid regions are teeming with rich wild life.

Mammals

Chinkara (Gazella bennettii bennettii), Blackbuck (Antelope cervicapra), Bluebull (Boselaphus tragocamelus), Jackal (Canis aureus), Red Fox (Vulpus vulpus pusilla), Indian Fox (Vulpus bengalensis), Desert Cat (Felis silverstris), Desert Hare (Lepus nigricollis), Long-eared Hedgehog (Hemiechinus auritus) etc.

The Chinkara and Blackbuck survive better in areas inhabited by the Bishnoi community as they protect them like own family members.

Reptiles

Desert Skink (Ophiomorus tridactylus), and as many as 43 species of reptiles eg Spiny-tailed Lizard (Uromastyx hartdwickii), Russell's Viper (Daboia russelii), Saw-scaled Viper (Echis carnata), Common Monitor Lizard (Varanaus bengalensis).

Birds

The area has rich bird life, about 250 species have been recorded. Of these, nearly 90 species inhabit the Desert National Park (Jaisalmer and part of Barmer districts). Several new species are being observed in the desert following changes occurring due to advent of the Indira Gandhi Nahar Pariyojana. The arid character of the canal fed region has undergone changes inviting species which prefer greenery and moisture. Trees along the canal banks have only added to this new number. Eight globally threatened bird species occur in The Thar.

The semi-arid zone has recorded about hundred species of birds, of which about 83% species share other grassland patches within forests, but 17 species are exclusively present in the semi-arid areas (Rahmani).

The Great Indian Bustard (Ardeotis nigriceps) in the desert and the Lesser Florican (Sepheotides indica) in the semi-arid areas are the best indicators of the grassland habitats, and both are endangered species. Both are on gradual decline mainly because the grasslands are being degraded, altered and put to uses which shall stand contrary to the basic needs of people and livestock that traditionally sustained on them.

About 70% of the Great Indian Bustard(GIB) population is found in the Desert National Park. Three Important Bird Areas (IBAs) have been identified in the Thar : (i) Diyatra (ii) Desert National Park, and (iii) Talchhapar. The GIB is observed in several districts of Rajasthan: Ajmer, Barmer, Bikaner, Bhilwara, Jaisalmer, Jalore, Jodhpur, Kota, and Pali. The Rajasthan Department of Forest can pride itself for being the pioneer for introducing new measures for conservation of this species in the country and declared GIB as its State Bird in early eighties.

The Lesser Florican is found in several districts of Rajasthan: Ajmer, Banswara, Bhilwara, Chittorgarh, Jaipur, Pali, Tonk etc.

THREATS TO GRASSLANDS

The grasslands are, however, on severe decline. The pressure on these beautiful habitats is immense. They are ironically not receiving priority at the key decision-making levels in the entire country. The main threats can be summarised as:

(i) Increase in livestock number and excessive grazing
(ii) Expansion of human population
(iii) Expansion of agriculture
(iv) Increasing mining activities
(v) New irrigation schemes
(vi) Changes in land use
(vii) Afforestation
(viii) Lack of management etc.

The Government has been allocating increased outlays in its annual budget proposals to develop such areas (arid and semi-arid). There have been special schemes for drought-proofing. All such measures have called for huge investment running in hundreds of crore rupees across the arid and semi-arid parched land, where rainfall is minimum. However, little dent appears to have been made to improve significantly the lot of pastures, savannah and grassland habitats.

The Government of Rajasthan's publications (Basic Statistics and the Budget Study of 2005-06, presented in the State Assembly by Rajasthan's Chief Minister, Ms. Vasundhara Raje) do not mention anything about the Grasslands. Their phenomenal potential for being developed as probably the most viable resource base for people and their livestock is yet to be scripted. It needs to be realized that the economy of the Thar Desert has been traditionally bovine and people have had to face unprecedented odds for sustainable living in face of decline in grassland areas.


CONSERVATION STRATEGY

Barring a specialized Institute for studies/experiments on Grasslands at Jhansi, there does not appear to be any other source to undertake serious thinking for betterment of rural economy by way of regenerating the traditional grasslands in the country. The grasslands are recorded with the revenue agency and hence remain at the mercy of officials who discharge 'development' programmes. It is time this set of decision-making group is re-oriented towards Grasslands' Conservation so that such most meaningful habitats are revived much to the benefits of local communities. Grasslands signify the basic health of people and needs of their livestock. The role of the Departments of Forest all over the country will be crucial in rejuvenating such habitats since it is well versed with conservation idiom and mechanism of its implementation.

Integrated Grassland Development Programme can be initiated at each State level. Various heads of development can be merged together to constitute this population-friendly strategy. An example:

The Budget Study of Government of Rajasthan (2005-06) listed a total Annual Plan Allotment for Rs 5,00,035.09 lakhs for Agriculture & Allied Services as also for Rural development. Of this Rs 48,676 lakhs were earmarked for (i) DPAP (Rs 440 lakh), (ii) DDP (Rs 2,029 lakh), (iii) Employment Assured Scheme (Rs 2,258 lakh), (iv) DRDA (Rs 501 lakh), (v) Swaran Jayanti Swarojgar Yajana (Rs 837 lakh), (vi) Jawahar Gramin Swarojgar Yojana (Rs 1,896 lakh), MLAs Local area Development Programme (Rs 13,125 lakh), and Panchayat Development (Rs 27,590 lakh).

It will be appropriate to put all these programmes together to constitute an integrated Rural Development Strategy in which Grassland Ecology and Gene Bank Conservation are given the priority placement : Rs 48,676 lakh, are no small amount. Start needs to be made by Rajasthan to take the much needed lead at national level.

GRASSLAND ECOLOGY WORKSHOP

The forthcoming Workshop on Grassland Ecology & Gene Pool Conservation is probably the first initiative in this direction (Jaipur on 26, 27 and 28 September 05), being hosted by the Rajasthan Forest Department, and assisted by some NGOs.

Officers
from Forest Departments in different States, experts in various Institutes/Disciplines and other individual have an obligation to play an instrumental role to try to develop a National Policy towards the objective. Grassland Habitats personify Rural Economy, which was cherished as a sustainable living idiom by forefathers of those who today have assumed the role of decision makers in India. Sounds challenging, the same idiom needs to be re-introduced in the decision making process. Let this meet come out with a Jaipur Declaration to this effect.

The workshop will be held at:

Rajasthan State Institute of Public administration (HCM RIPA)
J.N. Marg (Near Malviya Regional Engineering College)
Jaipur

Note: It is a hurried Note by the one who knows nothing about botanical aspects of the topic, hence ignorance/mistakes are inevitable.

Harsh Vardhan
Hony. Secretary, TWSI
C 158A, Dayanand Marg, Tilak Nagar, Jaipur 302 004
Tel: 00.91.141.2624444 & 2621472
Fax: 00.91.141.2621129.
Email :

Source: Harsh Vardhan, Hony. Secretary, TWSI - contact
Author: Harsh Vardhan,

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